• Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar-1st Triumvirate
• Rubicon- the river that marked the northern territory 
• Caesar conquered Gaul and even made forays into Britain and Germany
• By 50 B.C. most of western Europe was under Roman rule, and Caesar had built a powerful army personally devoted to himself 
• Crassus had led an army to crushing defeat by the neighboring empire of Parthia, while Pompey had stayed in Rome, growing increasingly jealous of Caesar's success. 
• Finally, with Pompey's support, the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome.
• Instead, he decided to come back with part of his army, in defiance of Roman Law. 
• It was the beginning of another round of far-flung civil wars.
• Pompey was hastily commissioned to defend the Senate, but his forces were no match for Caesar's veterans. 
• Forced to flee form Italy, Pompey was later defeated by Caesar in Greece and murdered in Egypt, where he had taken refuge.
• The Senate now hailed him, however reluctantly, the Father of the Fatherland-a title recently invented for the Republic's most admired statesmen.
• He had himself appointed to most of the leading magistracies, either simultaneously or in quick succession: tribune, supreme pontiff, consul, and dictator for a ten-year term.
• Caesar used his new powers to attack the grave problems facing Rome.
• He took care to keep the loyalty of the soldiers and prevent the rise of rival warlords, by resettling war veterans on Farmlands in Italy and the provinces. 
• He extended Roman citizenship to parts of Gaul and Spain and appointed citizens from the provinces to the Senate.
• He gave the Romans splendid public buildings and roads, and introduced, reforms into every department of administration.